Luke–Acts

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Luke–Acts
Painting of Saint Luke writing at a desk
Luke the Evangelist, painted by James Tissot (c. 1886–94)
Information
ReligionChristianity
AuthorLuke (traditionally)
LanguageKoine Greek
PeriodLate 1st century AD
Books2
Chapters52 (24 in Luke, 28 in Acts)
Wikisource

Luke–Acts is the composite narrative formed by the Gospel according to Luke and the Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament. The two-volume work links the ministry of Jesus to the development of the early church, follows the spread of Christianity from Jerusalem to the wider Mediterranean, and presents salvation history as the framework for understanding those events.[1][2]

Some modern editions of the Bible and New Testament, including The Original New Testament (1985) and The Books of the Bible (2007), combine Luke–Acts into a single book.[3]

Structure and contents

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Luke is the longest book in both the four gospels and the entire New Testament. The narrative divides the history of first-century Christianity into three stages. The gospel recounts the arrival of Jesus the Messiah, from his birth and early encounter with John the Baptist through his ministry, passion, death, and resurrection. Acts continues the story with the proclamation of the risen Jesus and the spread of the movement through the apostolic mission.[1]

The Lukan narrative spans from the annunciations and birth narratives to the resurrection appearances. It was likely composed around 80–90 CE, though some scholars place it more broadly in the late first century.[4] Mark is used, and advocates of the Two-source hypothesis additionally posit Q and L, though alternative hypotheses supporting the direct use of Matthew by Luke or vice versa without Q are increasing in popularity within scholarship,[5][6][7] and there has been increasing skepticism of source-criticism of the gospels in recent years.[8][9] Luke may also claim access to eyewitnesses during his investigations.[10][11][12] No sources have been identified for Acts, though Jerusalem and Antioch traditions have been proposed.[13][14] Prominent themes include the universal scope of salvation, work of the Holy Spirit, prayer, and concern for the poor and marginalized.[15]

The Acts narrative extends from the ascension and Pentecost to Paul's imprisonment in Rome. Scholars date its composition to around 80–100 CE, with some proposals extending into the early second century.[16][17] Key themes include the mission to the nations, unity of the church, guidance by the Spirit, and continuity with Israel.[18][19][20]

Luke–Acts is written in the style of ancient historical accounts and biographical writings, combining characteristics of both.[18][21][19] It presents a theologically shaped account of Jesus and the early church intended to inform and persuade.[18][21][19] Recurrent themes include the action of the Holy Spirit, the continuity of the church with Israel, the inclusion of Gentiles, the centrality of Jerusalem and the journey to and from it, prayer, table fellowship, and concern for the poor, women, and outsiders.[22][23][20][24] Conzelmann's influential reading described the narrative as salvation history in stages, while later narrative studies have stressed coherence across both volumes and the persuasive function of speeches and summaries.[20][24]

Luke

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Main article: Gospel of Luke

Luke tells the story of Jesus from annunciation to resurrection appearances. It adapts Mark while adding distinctive infancy narratives, parables, and post-resurrection scenes.[4][23][22] The Gospel emphasizes God's mercy, reversal of fortunes, and the inclusion of outsiders.[4][23][22] The composition exhibits careful Greek style, extensive use of the Septuagint, and narrative techniques that frame Jesus' ministry within Israel's story and God's purposes for all nations.[25][24]

Acts

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Main article: Acts of the Apostles

Acts continues from the ascension to the spread of the Christian mission from Jerusalem to Rome. The narrative focuses on Peter, Stephen, Philip, Barnabas, and Paul. It alternates between summary notices, speeches, and travel episodes, and it includes first-person "we" passages in the later chapters.[16][26] Scholarly debate addresses the historical value of episodes and speeches, with many noting that ancient historians composed speeches to fit context while still aiming to convey the gist of events.[27][28][29]

Authorship

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Main article: Authorship of Luke–Acts

The books are anonymous. From the late second century onward, church writers attributed the work to Luke, a physician and companion of Paul, and this attribution became traditional.[4] Early external attestations include Irenaeus and the Muratorian list for Luke and Acts, although the value of such attributions for establishing authorship is debated.[30][31] Many scholars doubt traditional authorship due to differences between Acts and Paul's letters and on the literary shaping of speeches and journeys,[28][26][4] though many continue to maintain that the author was a sometime coworker of Paul, pointing to the "we" passages and accurate local color in Acts.[32][33][34][35]

Most scholars place Luke and Acts in the period c. 80–100 CE.[4][7][16] Arguments for this date cite the use of Mark, the retrospective tone of Luke 21 concerning the temple's destruction, and the two-volume literary plan.[4][7][16] Some date Acts as late as the early second century, partly on literary grounds and on the reception history of Acts.[17] Proposed places of composition include a Greek-speaking urban setting in the eastern Mediterranean, such as Antioch, Achaia, or Asia Minor, although no single location commands consensus.[4][7]

Both books present narrative accounts addressed to a person named Theophilus.[36] The book of Acts opens with the phrase "The former treatise have I made," which points back to the Gospel of Luke.[37] The view that they were written by the same person is virtually unanimous among scholars.[38]

Transmission

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The text of Luke and Acts is preserved in early papyri and major uncial codices. Important witnesses include Papyrus 75 for large portions of Luke, Papyrus 45 for sections of both Luke and Acts, and principal fourth century manuscripts such as Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus. Codex Bezae is a bilingual fifth century manuscript whose distinctive Western text of Luke and Acts preserves long readings and notable variants.[39][40] Modern critical editions favor Alexandrian type readings in many cases, while discussion of Western readings continues to illuminate the textual history of Luke–Acts.[39][40]

The work is Hellenized and written for a gentile audience, possibly in part to counter a gnostic understanding of history.[41] Marcion, an influential 2nd-century Christian leader and theologian, used a modified form of Luke known as the Gospel of Marcion but did not use Acts, perhaps because he was unaware of it or intentionally excluded it from his biblical canon. Irenaeus, a proto-orthodox apologist, is the first to use and mention Acts, specifically against Marcionism.[42]

Before Irenaeus, excerpts from Luke circulated independently and served liturgical and catechetical purposes, while Acts appears to have been cited more sparingly.[30] Irenaeus explicitly ascribed the Gospel to Luke and appealed to Acts for apostolic continuity and the mission to the nations, a pattern that shaped later patristic use.[30][4] Marcion used a version of Luke edited to fit his theology and did not receive Acts.[43] Some modern scholars argue that Acts addresses issues that surfaced in anti-Marcionite debates.[42][28] Acts entered the mainstream canon across the third and fourth centuries, and by late antiquity both volumes held secure places in Christian Scripture.[31][44] Luke–Acts continues to shape Christian theology and practice. It provides the most extensive narrative of Jesus' ministry and the earliest mission, and it influences art, preaching, and ecclesial identity.[23][24][29]

Textual critics describe the text of Acts within Luke–Acts in two main forms: a shorter Alexandrian tradition and a longer Western tradition that runs about 8–12 percent longer overall.[45][46] Scholars have not reached consensus on which tradition is earlier, with many arguing that the Alexandrian text lies closer to the authorial wording, while others contend that the Western text preserves readings from an earlier edition.[47][48][49]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Allen 2009, p. 326.
  2. ^ Thompson 2010, p. 319.
  3. ^ Hugh J. Schonfield, ed., The Original New Testament (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1985) ISBN 978-0062507761
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament, New York, Doubleday, 1997.
  5. ^ Runesson, Anders (2021). Jesus, New Testament, Christian Origins. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802868923.
  6. ^ The Synoptic Problem 2022: Proceedings of the Loyola University Conference. Peeters Pub and Booksellers. 2023. ISBN 9789042950344.
  7. ^ a b c d Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I–IX, Anchor Bible 28, Garden City, NY, Doubleday, 1981.
  8. ^ Wolter, Michael (2018). The Gospel According to Luke Volume 1 (Luke 1-9:50). Baylor University Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-1481305938.
  9. ^ Bond, Helen (2020). The First Biography of Jesus. Eerdmans. pp. 250–52. ISBN 978-0802874603.
  10. ^ Bovon, Francois (2002). Luke 1: A Commentary on the Gospel of Luke 1:1-9:50. Fortress Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 9780800660444.
  11. ^ Keith, Chris (2020). The Gospel as Manuscript: An Early History of the Jesus Tradition as Material Artifact. Oxford University Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0199384372.
  12. ^ Crowe, Brandon (2012). Issues in Luke-Acts. Gorgias Press. pp. 74, 83. ISBN 978-1607241607.
  13. ^ Loveday Alexander, Acts in Its Ancient Literary Context, London, T&T Clark, 2005.
  14. ^ Bond, Helen; Hurtado, Larry (2015). Peter in Early Christianity. Eerdmans. p. 70. ISBN 978-0802871718.
  15. ^ Johnson 2010, p. 44.
  16. ^ a b c d Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles, Anchor Bible 31, New York, Doubleday, 1998.
  17. ^ a b Richard I. Pervo, Dating Acts, Santa Rosa, CA, Polebridge Press, 2006.
  18. ^ a b c Gregory E. Sterling, Historiography and Self-Definition: Josephos, Luke-Acts and Apologetic Historiography, Leiden, Brill, 1992.
  19. ^ a b c Loveday Alexander, The Preface to Luke's Gospel, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993.
  20. ^ a b c Hans Conzelmann, The Theology of St. Luke, Philadelphia, Fortress Press, 1961.
  21. ^ a b Richard A. Burridge, What Are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography, 2nd ed., Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 2004.
  22. ^ a b c Luke Timothy Johnson, The Gospel of Luke, Sacra Pagina 3, Collegeville, MN, Liturgical Press, 1991.
  23. ^ a b c d Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke, Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 1997.
  24. ^ a b c d Robert C. Tannehill, The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts, 2 vols., Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 1986–1990.
  25. ^ Francois Bovon, Luke the Theologian, Waco, TX, Baylor University Press, 2006.
  26. ^ a b C. K. Barrett, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles, 2 vols., Edinburgh, T&T Clark, 1994–1998.
  27. ^ Loveday Alexander, Acts in Its Ancient Literary Context, London, T&T Clark, 2005.
  28. ^ a b c Richard I. Pervo, Acts: A Commentary, Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 2009.
  29. ^ a b Martin Hengel, Acts and the History of Earliest Christianity, London, SCM Press, 1979.
  30. ^ a b c Andrew F. Gregory, The Reception of Luke and Acts in the Period Before Irenaeus, Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2003.
  31. ^ a b Geoffrey Mark Hahneman, The Muratorian Fragment and the Development of the Canon, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992.
  32. ^ I. Howard Marshall, Luke, Historian and Theologian, Exeter, Paternoster Press, 1970.
  33. ^ Keener, Craig (2020). Acts (New Cambridge Bible Commentary). Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-1108468688. Many scholars, probably still the majority, argue that the author was at least a short-term companion of Paul.
  34. ^ Casey, Maurice (2010). Jesus of Nazareth: An independent historian’s account of his life and teaching. T&T Clark. pp. 96–104. ISBN 978-0567645173.
  35. ^ Brown, Raymond E. (1997). Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Anchor Bible. pp. 267–8. ISBN 0-385-24767-2.
  36. ^ Luke 1:3Acts 1:1
  37. ^ Acts 1:1, Authorised Version
  38. ^ Martin, Dale B. (2009). "Lecture 9 – The Gospel of Luke". RLST 152: Introduction to the New Testament History and Literature. Yale University. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  39. ^ a b Bruce M. Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament, 4th ed., Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005.
  40. ^ a b Eldon Jay Epp and Gordon D. Fee, Studies in the Theory and Method of New Testament Textual Criticism, Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 1993.
  41. ^ Hedrick & Hodgson 1986, p. 6.
  42. ^ a b Tyson, Joseph B. (2006). Marcion and Luke-Acts: A Defining Struggle. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 9781570036507.
  43. ^ Joseph B. Tyson, Marcion and Luke-Acts: A Defining Struggle, Columbia, University of South Carolina Press, 2006.
  44. ^ Harry Y. Gamble, The New Testament Canon: Its Making and Meaning, Philadelphia, Fortress Press, 1985.
  45. ^ Metzger, Bruce M.; Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516122-9.
  46. ^ Aland, Kurt; Aland, Barbara (1987). The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-4098-1.
  47. ^ Barrett, C. K. (1994–1998). A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-09580-5.
  48. ^ Parker, D. C. (1992). Codex Bezae: An Early Christian Manuscript and Its Text. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-35595-0.
  49. ^ Rius-Camps, Josep; Read-Heimerdinger, Jenny (2004–2009). The Message of Acts in Codex Bezae, 4 vols. London: T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-04476-6.

Bibliography

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